Contents
What Is MLA Style?
MLA (Modern Language Association) style is the standard citation system in the humanities — literature, linguistics, philosophy, art history, film studies, and cultural studies. It uses an author–page in-text system: in-text citations show the author's surname and the page number, directing readers to the full Works Cited entry.
The 9th edition (2021) built on the container model introduced in the 8th edition and added refined guidance for digital sources, audiovisual materials, and works with multiple contributors.
The Container Model — MLA's Unifying Concept
MLA 8th/9th editions replaced individual citation templates for each source type with a single flexible framework: the container model. The idea is that every source exists inside one or more "containers" — the larger wholes that hold the specific item you are citing.
How Containers Work
A journal article lives inside two containers:
Container 1: The journal issue (journal name, volume, issue, date, pages)
Container 2: The database (e.g., JSTOR, Gale) that delivered it to you (database name, URL or DOI)
Each container contributes its own set of the nine core elements. Most sources have one container; online sources accessed via databases often have two.
The Nine Core Elements
These elements appear in the same order for every source. Omit any element that doesn't apply to your source — never invent a value for a missing element.
In-Text Citations
MLA in-text citations use author and page number — not author and year. The citation usually appears in parentheses at the end of the sentence, before the final punctuation.
| Situation | Format | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Basic parenthetical | (Author page) | (Orwell 45) |
| Author named in sentence | (page) | Orwell argues that language shapes thought (45). |
| No page number | (Author) | (Williams) |
| Two authors | (Author1 and Author2 page) | (Gilbert and Gubar 12) |
| Three or more authors | (First et al. page) | (Eagleton et al. 88) |
| Same author, multiple works | (Author, shortened title page) | (Woolf, Mrs Dalloway 67) |
| No author | (Shortened title page) | ("Digital Futures" 14) |
Works Cited Formatting
- Title the page Works Cited (centred, not bold or italicised).
- List entries alphabetically by author's last name. No author → alphabetise by title (ignore A, An, The).
- Use a hanging indent: first line flush left, subsequent lines indented 1.27 cm (0.5 inch).
- Double-space throughout, including between entries.
- Titles of long works (books, journals, films, websites) are italicised.
- Titles of short works (articles, chapters, poems, episodes) are enclosed in double quotation marks.
Worked Examples
Digital and Online Sources
MLA recommends adding "Accessed [date]" for web pages that lack a publication or last-updated date, or for sources that may change over time. For stable, dated pages, it is optional.
Common MLA 9th Errors
| Error | Incorrect | Correct |
|---|---|---|
| Including year in in-text citation | (Orwell, 1949, p. 45) | (Orwell 45) |
| Underlining titles | Nineteen Eighty-Four | Nineteen Eighty-Four |
| Missing "p." for pages in Works Cited | pp. omitted | pp. 12–18 (use pp. for ranges, p. for single) |
| Comma before page number | (Orwell, 45) | (Orwell 45) |
| Full URL rather than permalink or DOI | Unstable session URL | Stable permalink or DOI from database |
| Not alphabetising Works Cited | Entries in order of appearance | Alphabetical by author surname |
| Capitalising all title words | "Signs Taken For Wonders" | "Signs Taken for Wonders" (prepositions lowercase) |